Higher education is highly valued in Greek society, and for many years it was identified with public universities, in contrast to developments both at the European and global levels. Recently, however, state universities have been breaking away from the monopoly of provision for higher education, with the introduction of colleges and nonstate universities. The Greek higher education landscape becomes increasingly complex, and the discussion of the challenges is particularly intriguing.

The constitution of Greece did not always prohibit the establishment of universities by private individuals. In 1911, the constitution provided for the establishment of private universities. However, following the Greek Civil War, in 1952 the state’s close dependence on universities was reinforced with the aim of promoting specific values and ideological standards. In 1975, after the military dictatorship, or junta period, all political parties in Greece were strongly state-oriented in their approach to higher education. Thus, the relevant provisions of the constitution remained unchanged. Ever since, the prohibition of the establishment and operation of universities by private bodies is explicit and reaffirmed by decisions of the council of state. Indeed, the constitution explicitly prohibits both private for-profit and private nonprofit activity in the field of higher education.

Nonofficial Higher Education in Greece and Nonstate Universities

This fact did not, however, prevent the establishment and operation of various private organizations providing higher education services on the basis of a 1935 law amending and supplementing the provisions on vocational education. These organizations issued simple certificates, which were not recognized by the Greek state to the extent that there was absolutely no state supervision over their study programs. Nevertheless, they experienced significant growth capitalizing on the increasing demand for higher education and the perceived inadequacy of the existing provision by the state, which permitted the issue to emerge and evolve into a significant concern for the country.

Despite the ongoing uncertainty surrounding the future of the higher education landscape, the size of the market is more clearly defined, potentially explaining the long-standing interest. Currently, 30 colleges in Greece operate as franchises of foreign universities. The majority of these colleges (26 out of 30) collaborate with British universities, while others have established franchises with institutions from France, the Netherlands, and the United States. It should be noted that colleges are not obliged to provide data on all their students. However, data from the United Kingdom for the academic year 2020–2021 indicate that the number of students at colleges operating as franchises of British universities in Greece reached 21,530, including some from the Balkans and from Asian countries. The number of undergraduate students enrolled in the country’s 24 universities during the same period was 281,596.

The Key Elements of the Debate around Private Universities in Greece

The debate surrounding private universities in Greece focuses on two distinct areas. Today, as a result of friction between national and EU law, Greece recognizes the professional equivalence of college degrees awarded in cooperation with European public and private higher education institutions. Yet, this approach effectively circumvents the prohibition on the establishment of private higher education institutions in Greece. This brings notable implications for the structure and content of higher education in the country. Perhaps the most evident consequence is the emergence of nonstate universities, which meant a notable normative progression in the Greek higher education landscape. The establishment of these institutions was initiated by Law 5094/2024. It is important to note, at this point, that the establishment of nonstate universities does not necessarily imply the elimination of (private) colleges. This is particularly true given that their qualifications will continue to be recognized for professional purposes.

Conclusions

On the one hand, Greek governments and political parties have demonstrated a notable degree of inertia with regard to the revision of the constitution's provisions on private universities over the past years. This may be attributed to a variety of factors, including concerns about the potential political costs associated with revising the constitutional provision that prohibits private higher education in Greece. Additionally, ideological considerations and genuine ideological opposition have also contributed to this reluctance.

On the other hand, it is essential to acknowledge that the pursuit of university education is often regarded as an end in itself in Greek society. This may be attributed to the promise of social advancement for graduates and the perception of a long-lasting residual welfare state that is plagued by repeated crises, and bureaucratic and clientelistic logic. Additionally, university entrance examinations are considered to be one of the most meritocratic institutions in Greece.

The student movement in Greece has historically exhibited significant fragmentation, lacking a unified representative voice: Greek students are not represented in the European Students’ Union (ESU). The academic community, for their part, has identified practical support of public universities as a primary area of focus, with an emphasis, inter alia, on the monitoring and evaluation of academic quality standards within private colleges.

It is clear that the ultimate outcome of the persistent, irrational efforts to regulate the landscape of higher education and to meet the needs of the country remains to be clarified. This outcome exists in close alignment with international developments, and with decisions respecting the constitutional prohibition on the establishment of private universities in Greece. One thing is certain though: In the coming years, Greek higher education will be provided both by state and nonstate universities. Higher education qualifications recognized for professional purposes will be awarded by public, nonstate, and private institutions, including colleges.

Andreas Vasilopoulos, Assistant Professor, University of Patras, Master in Higher Education Policy: Theory and Praxis, [email protected]

George Dourgkounas, Adjunct Academic Staff University of Patras, Master in Higher Education Policy: Theory and Praxis, [email protected].